What Are The Active Compounds in White Willow?

White willow bark contains a glucoside called salicin. This active compound can also be found in poplars and aspen, but it was first identified in willow trees.

What is the Medicinal Potential of White Willow?

The medicinal potential of white willow was officially documented by a cleric known as Edward Stone. However, historical records from around the world, dating back to the bronze age, contain medicinal recipes that used willow.

In 1853 the salicin found in white willows was experimented on by a French chemist called Charles Gerhardt. Eventually, he synthesized the drug we now know today as aspirin. His process was refined by chemist Felix Hoffmann, a researcher for the German pharmaceutical manufacturer Bayer.

Like aspirin, salicin has an anti-inflammatory effect on the body. It was historically used to treat fevers and ease pain. Today, people drink white willow teas and take supplements to treat backaches, headaches, muscle aches, and even arthritis.

Can White Willow Be Poisonous?

Like most drugs, side effects can occur. Some people may be allergic to salicin or in rare cases, you may experience mild side effects like nausea or even breathing issues. If too much willow bark is consumed, it can damage the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract. Just like aspirin, salicin shouldn’t be consumed if you suffer from asthma, any intestinal issues, or by pregnant or breastfeeding women.

Cultural Symbolism of White Willow

Throughout history, white willow has been used by humans in a variety of ways. The wood has often been used to create cricket bats. And the long length and pliable nature of the stems made it a popular choice in basket weaving.

The age-old traditions of coppicing, pollarding, and basket weaving were popular in areas like the Poitevin marsh in France where willows thrived in the water-logged soils. These skills are still practiced today, particularly in Somerset and East Anglia in the UK where people can attend basket weaving courses.

Because of its medicinal potential, the white willow tree is often associated with healing, but in literature, it also has links to romanticism and mourning.

What Does White Willow Look Like?

White willow is the largest willow species, often reaching heights of over 20 meters. The crown of the tree tends to be irregular, allowing smaller branches to gracefully droop downwards.

The flowers are known as catkins and will release fluffy seed heads that can be seen floating in the air on a warm, breezy summer’s day. The leaves are finely-haired, pointed, and very narrow. On their underside, the leaves are very pale, which helped to give the species name Salix alba — with ‘alba’, meaning ‘white’ in Latin.

Where Does White Willow Grow?

Like most willows, the white willow favors very moist soil, and will often be found growing beside lakes, ponds and rivers, and around marshes.

It’s native to Europe and parts of Asia, but because of its medicinal and ornamental value, it was grown in countries like the US and has since been naturalized in the wild.

Conclusion

The white willow is a handsome tree species. It tends to produce leaves in early spring, and holds them until late fall, making it a popular choice in gardens. However, its greatest impact has been in the world of medicine. It can be used as a natural medicine and bought in health and wellbeing stores, or appreciated for its origins in the development of aspirin.

Featured Image | Photo from Wikimedia Commons

If eaten, the fungi can cause a dreadful condition known as ergotism. Throughout farming history, it has caused innumerable deaths and physical disabilities, in humans and also livestock. Today, the condition is rare, but cases still occur in countries with fewer farming regulations.

What Are The Active Compounds That Cause Ergotism?

Ergot contains a large amount of a toxic alkaloid known as ergoline. It can restrict blood flow which can have serious consequences within limbs.

Very cold winters, combined with a very wet spring and rain in early summer create the perfect condition for ergot fungi to thrive.

Ergot Poisoning Symptoms

Symptoms of ergotism can be very unpleasant. In severe cases convulsions are common, and gangrene sets in within the feet and hands due to lack of blood flow. Other symptoms include psychosis, vomiting, itching, hallucinations, and headaches.

Notable Ergot Poisonings

Historians have found evidence of many ergotism epidemics throughout history. It still sadly occurs today in poorer nations, with one of the most recent cases in 2001 occurring in Ethiopia.

Cultural Symbolism of Ergot

Ergotism is often referred to as simply ‘ergot poisoning’, and historically as ‘Saint Anthony’s Fire’. During the middle ages, ergot poisoning was common among the poor, so a group of monks known as the Order of St. Anthony became specialized in treating people with ergotism.

The chemist, Albert Hofmann, synthesized LSD after studying the effects of ergotamine. LSD is created when diethylamine is combined with an active form of lysergic acid. Lysergic acid can either be produced naturally by the ergot fungus or chemically synthesized. It is believed that some cultures discovered this psychoactive effect, and ergot-infested grasses and grains were made into tinctures that were consumed for ritualistic purposes.

What is the Medicinal Potential of Ergot?

Because of its ability to restrict blood flow, a number of drugs have been created to utilize this. Ergotamine and Dihydroergotamine have been used to treat migraines, and Ergonovine is used in obstetrics to control blood loss after pregnancy. The Dassel History Center and Ergot Museum in Minnesota in the US has a series of exhibits that explain how ergot went from “Blight to Blessing”, as the medicinal potential was discovered. The museum is the actual site where ergot was produced for pharmaceutical companies between the 1940s and ’70s.

What Does the Ergot Fungus Look Like?

Ergot is a very small fungi species. When a grass flowerhead becomes infected, the ergot takes over the ovary and begins to exude honeydew filled with spores which can infect other flowers by insect pollination. A dark body known as a ‘sclerotium’ forms in place of a seed head. It is then harvested with other seeds which may go on to produce flour for food items.

In a wet spring, tiny red fruiting bodies emerge on the sclerotium and release spores into the wind for the process to begin on other nearby grasses or cereal crops.

Where Does Ergot Grow?

Ergot grows solely on grasses like rye and barley. While it can cause major issues for farmers and their crops, it also affects many wild grasses. It can be found throughout the world, wherever cereal crops are grown. But it needs specific conditions to successfully reproduce.

Conclusion

Today, ergot is managed by centuries worth of knowledge and modern prevention strategies. Crop rotation, choosing resistant crop varieties, inspections, grain color sorters, are all methods used to prevent ergot.

Featured Image | Photo by Lorie Shaull on Wikimedia Commons

Poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans) is one of the most well-known species of this genus. It’s a climbing plant that’s native to eastern US states, however, it’s not an official member of the ivy genus (Hedera). There is also a western poison ivy species in the US known as T. rydbergii. Poison oak has the Latin name ‘Toxicodendron diversilobum‘, and poison sumac is known as ‘Toxicodendron vernix‘ and is also sometimes known by the colloquial name ‘thunderwood’.

Poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac are all warily avoided by hikers, campers, and anyone exploring the outdoors, but what makes them so potent?

What Are The Active Compounds in Poison Ivy, Oak, and Sumac?

All species within the Toxicodendron genus contain an oil known as urushiol. It can cause severe skin irritation and a very serious allergic reaction in some people. It’s a clear liquid, which isn’t noticeable until it begins to severely burn, blister and irritate the skin.

Poison Ivy, Oak, and Sumac Poisoning Symptoms

When it touches the skin, urushiol will begin to cause contact dermatitis, and most people will develop an incredibly itchy and painful rash. The uncomfortable itch can last for weeks, so basic knowledge of the plant is essential to avoid contact.

Like manchineel, when poison sumac is burned, the resulting smoke can cause damage within the lungs, and in extreme cases, it can be fatal.

Cultural Symbolism of Poison Ivy, Oak, and Sumac

In China, Korea, and Japan, the Chinese lacquer tree (T. vernicifluum) is traditionally cultivated for a number of uses. The sap can be extracted and used to create a lacquer that gives a glossy finish to wooden products like tabletops, weapon handles, and musical instruments. The fruits are also used to produce wax which can be molded into candles or used as furniture wax.

What is the Medicinal Potential of Poison Ivy, Oak, and Sumac?

Within China, the fruits have been used in traditional herbal remedies to stop bleeding and even rid the body of parasites. Today, however, usage is much less common, and studies which examine its medicinal potential are limited.

What Does Poison Ivy, Oak, and Sumac Look Like?

The leaves of all three plants tend to have a slight waxy sheen which can help in identifying them. This dull sheen is the urushiol which causes severe skin irritation. The leaves of poison oak and poison ivy usually consist of three leaflets, which can be a useful identification feature. Also, poison oak leaves tend to be lobed in a similar way to true oak leaves.

Characteristics can vary heavily depending on the location and habitat. Some species and varieties may be a low-growing vine, others a small woody shrub. The fruits are usually an off-white color, and the leaves will flush red in autumn.

Where Does Poison Ivy, Oak, and Sumac Grow?

Poison Ivy, Oak, and Sumac can grow in a variety of habitats — from dunes and tropical rainforests to mountainous slopes and forests. They can also establish quickly in disturbed soil, either at field edges or construction sites.

One of each species can be found in all US states apart from Hawaii and Alaska. They are native only to the US and also to areas within Asia, but have been naturalized in some areas within Australia. There are no species of this genus currently found in Europe, Africa, or the UK.

Conclusion

Studies have concluded that climate change may be making poison ivy and other members of the Toxicodendron genus more potent. They thrive in conditions with a high carbon dioxide count, and the rigorous growth could be changing the urushiol and making it more allergenic.

While many people see poison ivy, oak, and sumac as undesirable weeds, their fruits are relied upon by lots of bird species. Plus, like the toxic manchineel, their solid root system helps to stop soil and sand erosion.

Featured Image | Poison Ivy in Minnesota, by Hardyplants at English Wikipedia

Another common name for the manchineel is the beach apple — which sounds innocent enough, but eating the fruit can be fatal.

Manchineel fruits are highly poisonous, however, it’s not only the attractive-looking fruits that we should be wary of… The sap within the leaves and wood also contains a highly toxic latex that can cause very serious damage to the skin and eyes.

What Are The Active Compounds in Manchineel?

The compounds that make the manchineel tree so deadly are found within all plant parts — from the flowers to the roots. The main active compound is known as phorbol. It causes an inflammatory response in the body, and can also indirectly encourage tumor growth. Manchineel also contains saponins like the deadly pokeweed, and the fruits also contain another highly toxic alkaloid known as physostigmine.

Manchineel Poisoning Symptoms

The sap will irritate the skin and cause dermatitis and painful blistering on contact. If it gets into the eyes it may cause temporary or even permanent blindness.

Eating manchineel fruits (or any plant part) will result in severe inflammation of the digestive tract, from the mouth and throat to the intestine. The severe reaction can cause irreversible damage and would likely result in death.

Shockingly, the manchineel can also cause indirect irritation on the skin and eyes. When the wood is burned the resulting smoke can cause temporary or permanent blindness. This can make removing the tree a difficult issue as chopping or burning the trunk can be hazardous.

Even standing beneath the tree during rainfall can be dangerous as raindrops become contaminated with the potent toxins. Many people have suffered blistered skin as a result of sheltering under a manchineel tree during a storm or downpour.

Cultural Symbolism of Manchineel

The effects of manchineel have long been known to indigenous islanders who used the toxic sap to their advantage. They used the sap to create poisonous arrows, and the leaves were also supposedly used to poison the water supplies of enemies.

Over time, the main use of manchineel became a source of timber. The tree must be carefully harvested as the sap can be a huge risk to anyone cutting the wood. After harvesting, the wood is left to dry in the sun, to ensure the sap is no longer dangerous. Caribbean carpenters created furniture, cabinets, and other beautifully carved items.

Notable Manchineel Poisonings

Throughout history, manchineel has been responsible for a large number of poisonings. Local knowledge was established quickly, but many unsuspecting sailors and colonialists were poisoned as they had no local plant knowledge. Many explorers and sailors also reference manchineel in their notes, and many had written records of how they, or fellow crew, fell ill after eating or being exposed to manchineel.

Today, warning signs and markings are set up in particularly touristy areas where the trees thrive to protect other unsuspecting victims from the tree’s toxicity.

What is the Medicinal Potential of Manchineel?

Like other poisonous species, for example, the foxglove or deadly nightshade, manchineel does hold some medical potential. Like the foxglove, the dried bark of manchineel was once used in herbal recipes to treat edema. Scientific studies are limited so homemade recipes are not recommended.

What Does Manchineel Look Like?

Manchineel trees tend to reach heights of 12-15 meters. The leaves are leathery, bright green, and very slightly serrated, and the flowers are small green/yellow and inconspicuous.

The fruits resemble a small apple or guava fruit and are noted as having a slightly sweet scent. To unsuspecting foragers, tourists, and particularly children, the fruits appear harmless, but they, unfortunately, hold deadly potential.

Where Does Manchineel Grow?

This deadly tree grows along the sandy shores of the Caribbean and also around the Gulf of Mexico. They grow within mangroves and swamps in Florida, Central America, and also around the Eastern coastline of Mexico. Many trees can also be found near tourist beaches.

Conclusion

Although incredibly toxic, the manchineel does have a valuable role within its ecosystem. Because of its coastal positioning and large size, it can help to prevent coastal erosion. It is also a food source and refuge for some wildlife, like the black-spined iguana. The tree itself is endangered, so while it may be very deadly, it should be respected.

Featured Image | Photo by Hans Hillewaert on Wikimedia Commons

Ingesting foxglove won’t just make you ill — it has a life-threatening effect on heart rate and it can be fatal. Although there are a number of differences, novice foragers and well-meaning but inexperienced herbalists may mistake foxglove for the edible comfrey.

What Are The Active Compounds in Foxglove?

Foxglove contains toxins known as cardiac glycosides. They can have an incredibly serious effect on the minerals within heart cells and can slow, block or increase the heart rate. The entire plant contains these toxins, from the seeds right down to the roots. And it’s not only toxic to humans, with all pets and livestock susceptible to its toxicity too.

The medicinal name for these compounds is digoxin. There is an antidote to foxglove poisoning known as digoxin-Fab, which can aid in patient recovery.

Foxglove Poisoning Symptoms

Symptoms begin roughly two hours after ingestion, and will generally involve severe nausea, a slow pulse, fatigue, chest pains, and a very irregular heart rate.

Treatment is possible, but permanent damage to the liver or heart may be caused. There was a recent case in January 2021 in Ireland where a man ingested a cocktail that contained two single leaves. He was in the hospital for 10 days.

Cultural Symbolism of Foxglove

Foxglove often features in films and tv as a poison, with possibly the most famous appearance in a James Bond film. In the film, Casino Royale, Bond’s cocktail is poisoned with digitalis by the lead villain, and Bond goes into cardiac arrest.

The effects that foxglove can have on heart rate were formally identified in 1785 by William Withering. As a botanist, he became interested in a herbal cure for dropsy created by a herbalist known as ‘Mother Hutton’. Today, dropsy is medically known as edema and can be caused by conditions like congestive heart failure.

What is the Medicinal Potential of Foxglove?

Since the medicinal potential was formally identified, the digoxin in foxglove has been extracted and used in a number of heart medications. It is not recommended for self-medication or homemade remedies due to its incredibly strong effect on the heart. It can treat atrial fibrillation and also heart failure.

What Do Foxglove’s Look Like?

There are 27 recorded foxglove species in the digitalis genus and a wide number of varieties that have been hybridized by avid gardeners. Most species have tall spires of tubular flowers in warm pinks and purples — although other species may have orange, yellow, or white petal colors. The wide pointed leaves grow out radially from a central stem.

The most common and recognizable species is the Digitalis purpurea which is native to Europe. It is widely naturalized in other continents, particularly the US, because of its value as an ornamental plant. The pink flowers usually have an internal spotted pattern.

Where Do Foxglove’s Grow?

Foxgloves are native to most temperate areas in Europe, Asia, and Africa. It favors a wide range of habitats, from open meadows and deeply shaded woodland, to coastal cliffs and humid laurel forests.

Conclusion

The hugely toxic nature of foxglove has no effect on its desirability as a garden ornamental. It’s loved in cottage gardens in the UK and is a striking wild plant that can always be admired throughout the summer months on a hike or walk. Just be wary of children and pets encountering them, as they can be extremely deadly if accidentally consumed.

Featured Image: Digitalis Purpurea in the Netherlands | Photo by Matthijs van den Berg on Wikimedia Commons

There are several species known as jack-o-lantern mushrooms, with a European species (Omphalotus olearius) and two American jack-o-lantern mushrooms. Each is known as the western jack-o-lantern (Omphalotus olivascens), and the eastern jack-o-lantern mushroom (Omphalotus illudens).

While its appearance is bold, it definitely isn’t unique… The jack-o-lantern mushroom is a lookalike of chanterelle mushrooms. And unlike the chanterelle mushroom, it isn’t edible. Careful identification is needed to differentiate between the two mushrooms as jack-o-lantern mushrooms are actually incredibly toxic.

Because of this similarity, they are the cause of a number of accidental poisonings, as inexperienced foragers accidentally forage, cook and consume them. There are a number of notable characteristics that allow foragers to tell the difference, but accidents still occur.

What Are The Active Compounds in Jack-o-lantern Mushrooms?

The active compounds in jack-o-lantern mushrooms are known as illudins. They are highly toxic, and can actually damage DNA within the body, in some areas this damage is not always repaired.

Jack-o-lantern Mushroom Poisoning Symptoms

Eating a jack-o-lantern mushroom will result in severe gastrointestinal distress, with cramps, vomiting, diarrhea, and nausea. Symptom intensity will depend on how much is consumed, but medical assistance is usually recommended.

Fatalities generally do not occur, but the severe symptoms are warning enough for mushroom foragers to sharpen their identification skills.

Cultural Symbolism of Jack-o-lantern Mushrooms

Because of their similar appearance to chanterelles, jack-o-lantern mushrooms are well documented in old and new field guides and foraging identification books as a toxic lookalike.

Their bright orange coloring is thought to be the reasoning behind their common name ‘jack-o-lantern’, like the carved pumpkins of Halloween. The fruiting bodies of the mushroom will also emerge from forest floors around October 31st, making their naming even more appropriate.

Their bioluminescence is a great area of interest as scientists are eager to study the reasoning behind luminescence in different plants, animals, and fungi. With highly sensitive cameras, the gills of the jack-o-lantern mushroom will glow a bright blue/green color.

What is the Medicinal Potential of the Jack-o-lantern Mushroom?

The active compound illudin that makes these mushrooms so poisonous may actually contain an interesting medicinal secret. Studies are currently observing the ‘antibiotic’ effect that illudin has on some forms of cancer cells.

Illudin is, however, highly toxic to humans, so scientists are experimenting with ways they can harness this natural ability.

What Does A Jack-o-lantern Mushroom Look Like?

The cap, gills, and stem of the Jack’o’lantern mushroom are bright orange. Even when sliced open, the orange color persists right through the stem. This is in contrast to chanterelle mushrooms which are usually more yellow in color, with a paler inside.

At night, these mushrooms will emit a faint green glow, as the gills are bioluminescent. To the human eye, this glow in the dark coloring appears very faint, but to wildlife, this light is thought to attract insects which will then help to spread the spores.

Where Do Jack-o-lantern Mushrooms Grow?

Jack-o-lantern mushrooms will usually be found growing on tree stumps, old logs, and fallen trees. They tend to favor oak trees and deciduous forests and will form fairly large clusters.

Conclusion

With its glow-in-the-dark gills and bright orange body, the jack-o-lantern mushroom is definitely a fascinating fungus to find around Halloween. It’s a mushroom that also holds amazing potential as a future cancer treatment — however, for now, it’s a mushroom best admired on a chilly autumnal walk.

Featured Image: Eastern jack-o-lantern mushroom (Omphalotus illudens) | Photo by  Karen (oldmanofthewoods) at Mushroom Observer on Wikimedia Commons

The warped, irregular cap of false morel mushrooms is an incredibly distinctive feature. True morels also have an irregularly shaped cap, and these similarities can make foraging difficult for those seeking the tasty edible true morels. Foragers searching for the true morel mushroom should always be well informed of the different characteristics between false and true morels as a mistake could be fatal.

What Are The Active Compounds in False Morel?

False morel mushrooms contain a toxin known as gyromitrin. It’s a volatile toxin that hydrolyzes within the body to create Monomethylhydrazine (MMH). This has also been identified as a carcinogen and has a very toxic effect on the body. Symptom onset usually occurs several hours after consumption.

Like the fly agaric mushroom, the toxins in false morels are water-soluble. In some countries, people do still prepare dishes with false morels — although usually with a very thorough preparation method.

Scientists have noted that toxin levels seem to vary greatly between habitats, seasons, and mushroom maturity. So consumption of false morels is never recommended.

There is also a noted tolerance difference between different individuals. Some people have an immediate and very severe reaction, others may only be affected if a large portion is consumed.

False Morel Poisoning Symptoms

False morel poisoning usually involves a series of severe symptoms including nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal cramping. In extreme poisoning cases, symptoms will include seizures, jaundice, and even death.

Notable False Morel Poisonings

As the same suggests, the false morel is a lookalike to another group of mushrooms known as true morels. Fatalities were once common, however with improved medical care, false morel poisoning cases are not usually fatal.

Cultural Symbolism of False Morel

Because of the varying level of toxins in mushrooms from different geographical areas, countries have varying rules when it comes to selling false morels. They can be bought fresh in Bulgarian and Finnish markets, and frozen in Russian shops, however in many other countries they are banned completely.

Some areas within North America also still actively consume false morels, but it’s important to stress the irregularity with toxin levels, even after preparation.

What Does False Morel Look Like?

All morel mushrooms have a deeply ridged cap, however, the false morels tend to resemble a brain (or even a portion of uncooked ground/minced meat), instead of the delicate honeycomb of true morels.

In the Gyromitra esculenta false morel species, the cap color is usually a very deep red/brown, however brighter varieties do exist. The Verpa bohemica false morel species has a more yellow/orange hue.

Generally, all false morels have a solid or ‘filled’ stem, compared to the usually hollow stem of true morels. However, with any foraging identification process, several characteristics must be used for careful identification.

Where Does False Morel Grow?

False morels favor the rich soils of pine forests, but they can also be found under aspens and within deciduous woodland areas. They’re native to North America and Europe, but favor cooler, temperate climates within these ranges.

Conclusion

Appearing in the spring, false morel mushrooms are a fascinating species to observe when found in the wild. While some countries still have false morels for sale in markets, the general advice is to avoid consuming them because of their carcinogenic properties.

False morels may not have the charming appearance of fly agaric or glow in the dark like the Jack-o-lantern mushroom, but as with any mushroom species, they play a vital role in their surrounding ecosystem. And due to their toxic nature, they are best admired on a forest floor rather than a dinner plate.

Featured Image | Kruczy89 on Wikimedia Commons

Today, the fly agaric mushroom is a telltale sign of autumn, with groups of ruby red caps alerting walkers and hikers to the seasonal change.

In contrast, the mushroom is also relatively well known as a powerful hallucinogenic. With careful preparation, fly agaric mushrooms are edible, but if eaten raw or incorrectly prepared, they are very toxic. A number of inexperienced mushroom foragers looking for a mushroom trip actually find themselves on a trip to the nearest hospital.

What Are The Active Compounds in Fly Agaric?

The most potent active compounds in fly agaric are muscimol and ibotenic acid. Muscimol is highly psychoactive, and ibotenic acid is very toxic.

Unlike death cap mushrooms, the toxins in fly agaric mushrooms are water-soluble, so with very careful preparation, they can become edible.

Fly Agaric Poisoning Symptoms

Eating raw fly agaric will bring on symptoms like nausea, delirium, and temporary visual and auditory changes. In severe cases — for example in children, or if a large amount of mushroom is consumed — symptoms can extend to convulsions, coma, and even death.

Today, fatal poisoning incidents are extremely rare, but a period of intense medical treatment may still be necessary. A cocktail of mild symptoms can last anywhere from 12 hours to serval days after consumption.

Cultural Symbolism of Fly Agaric

The bright red and white speckled cap of fly agaric — not to mention its hallucinogenic potential — has given the mushroom an interesting history within multiple cultures.

Here are a number of notable appearances of fly agaric in different cultures, from Victorian England to the Arctic Circle.

• It was often featured on Christmas cards in Victorian and Edwardian times to symbolise good luck.
• The bright red cap was thought to have inspired the colour of Santa’s suit.
• Fly agaric mushrooms were once widely used in Siberia and Northern Europe during Shamanic rituals. The mushroom would cause a deep trancelike state with visions that the Shaman would translate.
• The popular common name ‘fly agaric’ was thought to be linked to its use in managing flies. A cap was chopped up and placed in a saucer of milk within food storage areas to lure flies and poison them.
• They’re thought of as whimsical, and are often linked to stories of fairys and mystical forest creatures..

Fly agaric mushrooms are firmly set within our cultural consciousness. Appearing in jewelry, artwork, films (Alice in Wonderland), and even video games (The Mario Nintendo franchise).

What is the Medicinal Potential of Fly Agaric?

Because of its psychoactive effects, fly agaric was generally valued more as a ritualistic mushroom than a medicine. Today, however, research projects are exploring its potential for treating mental health conditions like anxiety, depression, and even dementia and some forms of cancer.

What Does Fly Agaric Look Like?

Fly agaric is arguably the most recognizable mushroom in the world, with its brightly colored cap flecked with white. The Amanita muscaria is known as a ‘species complex’, as it has several varieties that have so many genetic differences that they are close to being considered a separate species.

Most fly agaric mushrooms have a bright red cap with white flecks, however, there is a North American variety known as the American Yellow Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria var. guessowii). It has a yellow/orange cap, but still has the white flecks of the torn universal veil which protects the mushroom as it emerges from the ground.

Where Does Fly Agaric Grow?

Fly agaric mushrooms are native to most countries in the Northern hemisphere with a temperate climate. They tend to favor forests and woodland with conifer and birch trees, and will often grow in groups of 5+ mushrooms.

Conclusion

The fly agaric mushroom is a beautiful specimen to stumble across while exploring. Although toxic, they can still be appreciated for their charm, their cultural histories, and also their value to the surrounding ecosystem.

Featured Image | Dominicus Johannes Bergsma on Wikimedia Commons

When fruiting, pokeweed produces an abundance of ornamental berry clusters with bright magenta stalks. It’s an attractive plant, but it’s also very toxic…

Some plant parts can be eaten, but only when correctly, and very carefully prepared. Pokeweed is responsible for the majority of plant poisoning cases in the US. Because of its edibility possibility, many people eat it without knowing of its lethal potential, or without knowing how to properly prepare it.

Their berry clusters can be mistaken for wild grapes by children and inexperienced foragers, so they are often mentioned as a poisonous lookalike in foraging information for wild grapes.

What Are The Active Compounds in Pokeweed?

Pokeweed contains a heady cocktail of toxins including a selection of saponins and poisonous alkaloids and resins. The toxin with the most severe effect is phytolaccine which is a toxic alkaloid.

The roots hold the highest concentration of these toxins, however, the entire plant is toxic, including stems, berries, leaves, and flowers. It also becomes increasingly more toxic with age as toxin levels build.

Pokeweed Poisoning Symptoms

Phytolaccine is a toxin that can cause extreme abdominal discomfort. Eating 1-3 berries is enough to cause vomiting, convulsions, diarrhea, respiratory failure, and even death.

If pruning or removing pokeweed, care should be taken to avoid getting sap on the skin as it can also cause dermatitis. Even getting berry juice on the hands can cause skin irritation.

Notable Pokeweed Poisonings

In the 1800s pokeweed poisonings were common as European settlers attempted to create dishes and medicines with incorrectly prepared pokeweed. The juicy berries can be particularly attractive to children, and there have sadly been a number of fatalities.

Cultural Symbolism of Pokeweed

Many people have accidentally poisoned themselves and others while creating a springtime dish known as ‘poke sallet’ or poke salad. It’s a traditional dish in many areas of southern America that involves a lot of careful preparation. Young shoots on a young plant are boiled up to three times with refreshed water to remove the toxins.

Pokeweed was a free and readily available ingredient that could be foraged in early spring when other greens hadn’t sprouted. Over time, it become a traditional dish that linked people back to the hardships of generations past.

Because of its poisonous nature, farmers and pet owners will try to remove it from their land as it’s toxic to livestock, horses, and dogs.

What is the Medicinal Potential of Pokeweed?

Because of its potent toxicity, it’s unusual for such a toxic plant to become a popular dish. However, it became a popular plant not just for its availability and edibility, but also for its medicinal potential. Pokeweed greens were considered a tonic that could rid the body of worms, which was a common problem in colonial America.

Native Americans had already discovered the medicinal potential of pokeweed. They treated skin conditions and other physical ailments with poultices from the roots and leaves.

Today, research projects have shown that some compounds in pokeweed may have a role to play in treating some cancers and even HIV.

What Does Pokeweed Look Like?

Pokeweed is a perennial and herbaceous plant (it lacks a woody stem). Without surrounding competition or maintenance it can reach heights of 15ft, but generally, plants are about 4-8ft on average.

The leaves are simple, pointed ovals, but the most recognizable feature is the berry clusters. The deep purple, almost black, berries hang from bright pink stalks in clusters not too dissimilar from a bunch of grapes.

Where Does Pokeweed Grow?

The Phytolacca americana species was originally native to the southeastern states of the US, but it has since spread to other countries, particularly Japan. 

The seeds remain viable for many years and are spread prolifically by hungry songbirds who eat the berries. You might discover a pokeweed plant along field edges, in areas of disturbed soil, woodlands, or even growing in your garden.

Conclusion

Pokeweed may be poisonous, but like foxglove and castor bean, it holds fascinating medicinal potential too. While pokeweed salad may be a popular traditional dish, it is generally not recommended to try this at home due to the extreme risk.

Featured Image by AnRo0002 on Wikimedia Commons

It holds a number of colloquial names, including Devil’s Tomato and Poisonous Potato, which begin to hint at the toxicity of the plant. When ripe, the fruit of the Carolina Horsenettle greatly resembles yellow tomatoes — which can look tempting to children and inexperienced foragers alike. However, unlike our usual garden varieties, the fruit of the Carolina Horsenettle is very poisonous, and will cause serious issues if eaten…

What Are The Active Compounds in Carolina Horsenettle?

Like deadly nightshade, the toxic alkaloid solanine is present in Carolina horsenettle. It’s an incredibly toxic compound and is the toxin responsible for making green (sun-exposed) potatoes so poisonous. Solanine is present in all plant parts, and it cannot be destroyed by boiling or cooking. The leaves and fruits contain the highest quantities of solanine.

Carolina horsenettle contains solanine as a natural defense mechanism. It helps to protect the plant from predators and also livestock, which will also usually avoid eating the plant.

Carolina Horsenettle Poisoning Symptoms

Symptoms will vary depending on how much is accidentally consumed. In an adult, one or two fruits will cause severe nausea, fever, diarrhea, dizziness, stomach cramps, and an irritated throat. But if a larger amount is consumed, the circulatory system and lungs can also be affected, and death may follow if treatment isn’t received quickly. Solanine can slow the heart rate, and also breathing, which can cause serious complications. Even relatively small doses of solanine can be fatal in young children, so parents must be vigilant when out exploring with little ones.

What is the Medicinal Potential of Carolina Horsenettle?

Usually branded only as a toxic lookalike, the Carolina horsenettle was once valued as a medicinal plant. Many Native American groups used Carolina horsenettle in medicinal recipes for its sedative and antispasmodic effects. The leaves were brewed into a tea to soothe sore throats and also used topically to treat poison ivy rashes. The plant would also be used to help with the removal of worms, and even used to treat epilepsy and convulsions. European colonizers also began to use the plant, until other medicinal herbs became preferred.

Cultural Symbolism of Carolina Horsenettle

The name ‘Carolina’ comes from the State in which the plant was first formally identified. However, the ‘Horsenettle’ likely refers to the toxic effect that plants can have on livestock and horses in particular.

Although ‘nettle’ features in the name, the Carolina horsenettle is not a true nettle, and it is not part of the nettle family Urtica.

Today, Carolina horsenettle is most widely viewed as a weed. It spreads via seeds that form in the rounded fruits, but it can also spread through rhizomes too, making it particularly invasive. Farmers tend to use specially formulated herbicides to remove Carolina horsenettle from pastures and crop fields.

What Does Carolina Horsenettle Look Like?

Carolina horsenettle has the telltale lobed leaves which can be found on other members of the nightshade family. They’re coated in fine hairs, and the stem is also spined.

In summer, the plant will have delicate, star-shaped white flowers with a yellow center. The fruit is dark green when it first forms and soon ripens to a deep golden yellow when mature. The fruits will appear on trusses, much like our usual garden tomatoes, and the fruit hugely resembles yellow tomatoes. Its similarity to tomatoes makes it dangerous to novice and inexperienced foragers.

Where Does Carolina Horsenettle Grow?

Carolina horsenettle is native to the southeastern states of North America, but it has since spread across the continent. Plant sightings are also often recorded in Europe, Asia, and even Australia.

It’s a perennial plant that can establish quickly in disturbed soil and form strong roots. You might come across it growing along roadsides, and also at the edges of meadows and fields.

Conclusion

Although it is now considered an invasive weed in many states, Carolina horsenettle still has a humble beauty with its delicate star-shaped flowers and bright yellow fruits. While it cannot be eaten by humans or livestock, it still has a valuable place within its native ecosystem. Birds and other wildlife rely on the fruits, and a number of insects including moths and bees feed on the pollen.